Christian and Secular Counseling with a Bible Word Study Basis Essay

Abstract In order to arrive at a clearer view of Christian counseling, this paper examines the similarities and differences between secular and Christian counseling. It begins with a biblical word study to establish a basis for Christian counseling. The words counsel, comfort, and wisdom are examined in both the Old and New Testament. The Biblical view of counseling is compared and contrasted with the secular view. Relevant ethical considerations are examined, specifically related to the _Bruff v. North Mississippi Health Services, Inc.,_ 2001 case. The paper concludes with a discussion regarding future endeavors in professional counseling including how to integrate the best Christian and secular practices. Christian counseling has been difficult to define because there are two distinct kinds of counseling: spiritual counseling and mental health counseling (Bufford, 1997). Thus, there are many approaches for the practice of Christian counseling that range from the integrationist to the nouthetic position, which has made identifying distinctive features of Christian counseling a complex task. Counselors of the nouthetic approach claim that  truth can only be found in the Bible, all counseling models must be exclusively from the Bible, and any integration of psychological theories must be rejected. The integrationists state that God reveals his truth universally. Hence, they accept and utilize both the techniques and the theories of psychology with Scriptural truth to help their clients heal (Carter, 1999). Realizing the need for both spiritual counseling and mental health counseling, Bufford (1997) defined seven distinctives of Christian counseling. Clinton and Ohlschlager (2002) propo sed ideas for Christian counseling that they describe as a paracentric focus that seems to more accurately convey the essence of Christian counseling. In view of all this effort to define Christian counseling, there is still much diversity of practice among Christian counselors. In an effort to understand the biblical views of counseling, and create a more distinctive picture of what is and is not biblical counseling, a word study on a variety of counsel terms is presented in this paper. Next, the conclusions from the word study are compared to the professional views of counseling including an examination of relevant ethical considerations. This paper will conclude with a discussion regarding future endeavors in professional counseling. Biblical Words Related to Counseling In this section, a word study was conducted to understand the biblical views of counseling. The words counsel, wisdom, and comfort were researched by first using the _Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible_ (Strong, 1996). The range of situations in which these concepts were used in the Old and New Testaments were researched using Richards’ (1985) _Expository Dictionary of Bible Words,_ Vine’s (1940) _Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words,_ and the _Baker’s Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology_ (Elwell, 1996). Several Bible commentaries were used to illustrate how these concepts were used in the Old and the New Testaments. _Counsel_ The Hebrew words that best communicate â€Å"to counsel† or â€Å"to advise† are ya`ats  and its derivative `etsah. Both words mean advice, counsel, purpose or plan. In the Old Testament, these words are used to describe both the counsel of God and the counsel of man. Ya`ats is used 80 times in the King James Version (KJV) of the Old Testament and `etsah is used 88 times to convey the concept of counsel or advice (Blue Letter Bible (BLB), 1996-2008). When ya`ats and `etsah are used as human counsel, it is usually in the context of counsel being given to kings (1 Chronicles 13:1; 2 Chronicles 25:17). Proverbs suggests that one should seek the counsel of many (Proverbs 11:14; 15:22) because human beings and their counsel are both fallible. However, God’s counsel is infallible, firm, and purposed (Psalms 33:10-11) which is conveyed as such in the Old Testament when ya`ats and `etsah are used. (Richards, 1985). In the New Testament, boule comes from the root word boulomai which means â€Å"to will.† Bouleuo is used 8 times in the New Testament and can mean â€Å"to take counsel, to resolve† (Vine, 1940). The root word boule translates â€Å"to will† or â€Å"to purpose† when God is the context. Its derivative, bouleuo, means â€Å"to take counsel, to resolve† and together with boule is used 20 times in the New Testament. Like the Old Testament, boule is used both to express the counsel of God (Luke 7:30; Acts 2:23) and the counsel of man (Ephesians 1:11; Hebrews 6:17). The compound symbouleuo refers to counsel taken together (John 11:53). One other word used in the New Testament that communicates â€Å"to counsel† is gnome. Whereas boule is counsel as a result of determination, gnome is used as judgment, opinion, or counsel as a result of knowledge (2 Corinthians 8:10). Gnome is used 9 times and symbouleuo is used 5 times (Vine, 1940). _Old Testament usage_. Both God’s counsel and human counsel are reflected through the use of ya`ats and `etsah in the Old Testament. The incidents of Absalom in Samuel 17:11-21 and Rehoboam in 1 Kings 12:1-15 illustrate how ya`ats is used for human counsel and suggests some plan of action to deal with a specific situation. Ultimately, both Rehoboam and Absalom choose a course of action, but there is no certainty in human plans. However, perfect counsel is found in God’s plans (Richards, 1985). Psalms 33:10-11 declares, â€Å"The Lord foils the plans of the nations; he thwarts the purposes of the  peoples. But the plans of the Lord stand firm forever, the purposes of his heart through all generations† (NIV). God’s counsel is inerrant, sufficient, and unchangeable and is at the center of Christian counseling. _New Testament usage._ The New Testament depicts the different ways in which human counsel is given. Symbouleuo is often used when advice is given by one person to another and is usually in reference to plots against Jesus or the early church (Matthew 26:4; Acts 9:23). Gnome is used in an example of sound advice based on maturity and knowledge given by Paul to the Corinth church (2 Corinthians 8:10) and boule is used in the sound advice given by the highly esteemed teacher of the Pharisees, Gamaliel (Acts 5:33-39). Although Gamaliel gave good advice, it was not tested by the standard of God’s word. Nonetheless, God used Gamaliel’s advice to give a needed respite to the young church (Guzik, 2001, Acts 5, D.2). The inconsistent advice given by man contrasts the immutable counsel of God. His truth is the primary source by which Christian counselors test all counseling methods, techniques, and principles in order to offer sound counsel to their clients. _Comfort_ Naham is the Hebrew word most often translated â€Å"to give comfort† in the Old Testament. It is used 108 times in the Old Testament. Many times naham means â€Å"to console† (Psalms 71:21; Isaiah 49:13). Its derivative, tanchuwm, means consolation (Job 15:11; 21:2) and is translated 5 times. Other meanings used in the Old Testament are support, relief, cheer up, and exhort. The last 26 chapters of Isaiah express God’s comfort (Isaiah 40:1) and the future promise of the Redeemer (Baker, 1996). In the New Testament, the words parakaleo (verb) and paraklesis (noun) come from kaleo which means â€Å"to call,† and para meaning, â€Å"alongside of.† Parakaleo means â€Å"to call to one’s side or to summon to one’s aid, but this word and its various forms can mean many other things. This word group can be translated as invite, call, exhort, beseech, encourage, summon, instruct, comfort, and console. Parakaleo is found 109 times in the New Testament. Nine of the NIV’s 17 translations of this word group meaning â€Å"comfort† are  found in 2 Corinthians 1:3-7. In these passages, Paul addresses God’s comfort during times of trouble. _Old Testament usage_. Jerusalem is discouraged over the announcement about the coming Babylonian conquest and future exile. In Isaiah 40:1-2, God tells Isaiah to â€Å"comfort, comfort my people† (NIV) and speak tenderly as you comfort. The people of Jerusalem were broken-hearted and needed comfort. God offered that comfort through Isaiah by instructing him to speak comfort, literally â€Å"speak to the heart† (Guzik, 2006, Isaiah 40, A.1.c.i). The goal of the therapeutic process is to restore the broken-hearted person to a whole life. Clients must believe that healing is possible, but counselors must first comfort their anxious souls (Clinton & Ohlschlager, 2002). The process of change begins with the Christian counselor speaking tenderly to his or her clients’ hearts and reassuring them of God’s omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence. Healing begins when a sense of comfort and encouragement grows from knowing that God knows everything, is in control of everything, is perfectly good, and is _on my side_ (Johnson, 2003). _New Testament usage._ Clinton and Ohlschlager (2002) proposed a Paracentric focus that describes the Christian counselor as single-mindedly focused on Christ and the client. In 2 Corinthians 1:3-7, Paul models this idea. Paul’s life is not on focused on himself, but on the Lord and on others. Paul opens his letter to the church in Corinth praising God for his mercy and comfort (2 Corinthians 1:3). Paul uses the Greek word paraklesis that expresses a comfort that strengthens, encourages, and helps one deal with distressful times. In verse four, Paul explains that God â€Å"comforts us in all our troubles, so that we can comfort those in any trouble with the comfort we ourselves have received from God† (NIV). Paul is thankful that he can experience God’s comfort during times of trouble and use that experience to help and comfort those in similar circumstances (Guzik, 2001, 2 Corinthians, A.2.a.i). In the same way, the Christian counselor, yielded to the Holy Spirit, can meet the client at his or her point of need, and begin to create a strong working alliance (Clinton & Ohlschlager, 2002). The broken-hearted can be comforted, the weak can be supported, the discouraged can be encouraged, and the misdirected can be guided (1 Thessalonians 5:14). _Wisdom_ The basic word group expressing the idea of wisdom includes chakam and its derivatives chokmah and chokmowth. Together they occur over 150 times in the Old Testament. This word group can mean to be skillful, to instruct, or to be prudent. Biyn and sekel are also closely related and usually means understanding or discernment. Biyn is used 170 times and sekel is used 16 times in the Old Testament. Throughout the Old Testament, wisdom is expressed in godly living that is most represented in the book of Proverbs (Proverbs 2:6, 9-10, 12). Wisdom can fit into two categories. Practical wisdom, which is usually found in Proverbs, deals with the issues of an individual’s life, such as family relations (Proverbs 22:6) and personal industry (Proverbs 8:15). Reflective wisdom focuses on theological issues, such as the suffering of the innocent Job and the meaning of life in Ecclesiastes (Elwell, 1996). The Greek word sophia is the word that expresses wisdom in the New Testament. Sophia is translated 51 times, and focuses on the same practice of godly living as described in the Old Testament. The exception is in 1 Corinthians 1-3 where Paul compares the wisdom of men to the â€Å"hidden wisdom of God† or God’s plan of salvation. Other words used are sunesis which means knowledge or understanding (Mark 12:33) and phronesis which can mean wisdom or prudence (Luke 1:17; Ephesians 1:8). Sunesis is used seven times and phronesis is used twice in the New Testament (BLB). _Old Testament Usage._ In Ecclesiastes, Solomon demonstrates how wisdom must be used when teaching or counseling those who are suffering. In Ecclesiastes 12:8-14, Solomon focused on the immediate needs of the people (vs. 8). He â€Å"sought to find out acceptable words: and that which was written was upright, even words of truth† (Ecclesiastes 12:9-10; KJV). Solomon understood that divine wisdom would be required to respond to the needs of the people (1 Kings 3:5-14). He also knew that he must offer truth found in Scriptures to direct them towards wellness (Ecclesiastes 12:10) for â€Å"what good will acceptable words do us if they be not upright and words of truth?†Ã‚  (Henry, 1996). Solomon pondered, sought, and used God’s Word to meet the immediate needs of the individual. This is the essence of Christian counseling. _New Testament usage._ James reflects Old Testament sentiments in his advice to appeal to God when one lacks wisdom (James 1:5-7). James is not just talking about knowledge, but about the ability to discern right from wrong. Later, James contrasts personal character that comes from divine wisdom and traits that are destructive and not of God (James 3:13-18). Wisdom that comes from God is â€Å"peace-loving, considerate, submissive, full of mercy and good fruit, impartial and sincere† (James 3:17). These traits should define competent Christian counselors. Both the Old Testament and the New Testament emphasize the importance to appeal to God for his divine wisdom. Comparison of Biblical Views with Professional Views This section begins by identifying similarities in function and approach between Christian and secular counseling. Differences are defined by examining three different areas: Philosophy of life, counseling goals, and source of truth. In the final section, conclusions are drawn regarding the implications to future counseling endeavors based on the conclusions from the word study, comparisons to professional counseling, and relevant ethical considerations. _Similarities between Biblical and Professional Views of Counseling_ _Code of Ethics._ Christian counseling and secular counseling have much in common, more so in the process than in the content. One area of commonality is illustrated in the American Counseling Association’s (2005) _ACA Code of Ethics_ and the American Association of Christian Counselors’ (2004) _AACC Code of Ethics._ Both ethics codes address basic moral principles – nonmaleficence, beneficence, justice, fidelity – that form the framework for ethical behavior and decision making for the professional counselor (Meara, Schmidt, & Day, 1996). Both ethics codes begin by addressing the primary responsibility of the counselor to _do no harm_ to those they serve (ACA,  2005, A.4.a; AACC, 2004, 1-102). Both ethics codes also address the counselor’s responsibility to â€Å"respect the dignity and to promote the welfare of clients† (ACA, 2005, A.1.a). Providing verbal and written informed consent, ensuring that â€Å"the client reasonably understand s the nature and process of counseling† (AACC, 2004, 1-310), as well as respecting client diversity (ACA, 2005, C.5; AACC, 2004, 1-101) are included in both ethics codes to protect the welfare of the client. _Common elements._ Christian counseling and secular counseling also share many common elements in their approach. First, both counseling systems are goal-oriented. Although goals such as spiritual maturity and discipleship are clearly distinctive to Christian counseling, many of the immediate goals, such as alleviation of depression, reduction of anxiety, and control over substance abuse are common goals in both secular and Christian counseling. Second, Christian and secular counselors use many of the same strategies, techniques, and methods to offer hope to the counselee, build a strong therapeutic relationship, develop competencies in social living, provide support, and change destructive cognitive or behavioral patterns (Bufford, 1997). Lastly, effective counselors in both Christian and secular counseling are characterized by warmth, sensitivity, understanding, genuine concern, trustworthiness, and competence (Clinton & Ohlschlager, 2002). _Differences between Biblical and Professional Views of Counseling_ _Philosophies of life (View of man)._ Everyone has a philosophy of life, a way in which one views the world. Generally, secular counseling views are man-centered (anthropocentric) and biblical counseling views are God-centered (theocentric). The worldview of a counselor determines how he or she thinks about human nature, evaluates and assesses the client, and decides on treatment strategies (Clinton & Ohlschlager, 2002). In secular counseling, the reason for man’s existence and the goals to be achieved are centered upon, and revolve around man. Secular counseling relies on theories influenced by behavioral, humanistic, and existential thought, but those theories have little to offer the client except the  advice that they should care about and love themselves (Carter, 1999). These theories emphasize a basic goodness or a basic depravity in the soul, and focuses on what will make the individual happy, adaptive, and successful. This is their basis for self-evaluation. â€Å"Humanistic psychotherapy has always been hampered by the contradiction of encouraging unlovable selves to love themselves† (Johnson, 2003, p. 84). In contrast, biblical counseling is God-centered. Christian counseling does not place humans at the center of the universe as humanism does. In Genesis, it states that God is the creator, and he created man in his image and likeness to live and rule in a perfect world (1:26-2:25). In spite of the corruption of the fall, man still bears the image and likeness of God and still has authority in the world as dependent creatures who desire to have a relationship with God and other people (Averbeck, 2006). It is this God-revealed concept of the nature of man that biblical counseling, both as a system and as a process of doing counseling, bases its work. Christian counselors understand that all biblical care giving falls within the larger plans and purposes of the Creator. It is comforting to know that in the midst of a contingent, unpredictable life, God, the creator, is always there to meet every need and pour out his comfort to all who seek him (Johnson, 1997). Christian counseling offers what secular counseling cannot: â€Å"the father of compassion and the God of all comfort† (2 Corinthians 1:3; NIV). As man searches for meaning and contentment, God comforts and heals. _Goals._ Though easing the suffering of the client is a goal in both Christian and secular counseling, it is not the ultimate goal of the Christian counselor. All counseling systems have goals of bringing about changes in the counselee, whether they are changes in feelings, beliefs, thinking or behavior. The goals of a counseling system are largely determined by the philosophy of life held. A man-centered viewpoint will yield goals that focus on the relief of suffering and the fulfillment of personal happiness. Secular counseling holds such views. The main goals of secular counseling in treating clients are to help the client alleviate anxiety, guilt, depression, anger and to achieve personal happiness, contentment and self-fulfillment. Secular counselors also give counselees  methods of self-assessment to help them continue to live life with minimal anxiety and hostility (Clinton & Ohlschlager, 2002). Like the secular counselor, Christian counselors seek to change behaviors and attitudes that will bring about happiness, contentment, and greater well-being; however, Christian counseling goes much deeper than changing behavior and helping clients find happiness (Bufford, 1997). The ultimate goals of Christian counseling are to help the counselee experience intimacy with God and maturity in Christ (Ephesians 4:20-24). Placing an emphasis on discipleship and introducing spiritual disciplines in the Christian counseling practice helps achieve these goals. Although both share similar thoughts in techniques and theories, the practice of spiritual disciplines is uniquely Christian and is an important factor in achieving the goals of intimacy and maturity (Willard, 2000). Collins (1996) states, â€Å"Helping that leaves out the spiritual dimension ultimately has something missing. It may stimulate good feelings and help people cope with stress, but it does nothing to prepare people for eternity or help them experience the abundant life here on earth† (p. 15). Though the ultimate goals of Christian counseling are intimacy with God and maturity in Christ, the heart of Christian counseling is the good news of Jesus Christ (Colossians 1:26-27). The power of Jesus makes change, redemption, and new life possible. In the Great Commission, Jesus commands Christians to make disciples and to teach them to how to live as disciples and experience abundant life. The Great Commission differentiates Christian counseling from secular counseling. The work of Christian counselors is incomplete until they have helped the counselee put off the old self and put on the new by teaching and training them to live like Christ (Willard, 2000). _Source of truth_. There are more than 400 different therapy models available today. â€Å"Effective counselors scrutinize theories for proven effectiveness and match them to personal beliefs and realities about the nature of people and change† (Gladding, 2007, p. 190). Never before has it been so important to have a source of absolute truth. Christian counselors believe that the Bible is the authoritative word of God against which they can assess their  beliefs, practices, ideas, and actions. They believe that â€Å"all Scripture is God-breathed† (2 Timothy 2:16-17, NIV) and fully equips them for every good work. Thus, although both Christian counselors and secular counselors use many of the same counseling techniques, the Christian counselor does not use counseling techniques that are inconsistent with biblical teaching. Recent studies on therapeutic outcome encouraged the present emphasis on an eclectic approach in professional counseling. That is, most counselors today are using various theories and techniques to meet their clients’ unique needs. Whiston and Sexton (1993) concluded that a strong therapeutic relationship is significantly related to positive client outcome. Tan (2003a) reported that empirically supported treatments (ESRs) and empirically supported therapy relationships (ESTs) that are specifically tailored to a client’s needs produced the best therapeutic outcomes. Like Solomon (1 Kings 3:5-14), it is crucial that a Christian counselor be a biblically informed and responsible eclectic who prays for the discernment needed to â€Å"fit the right therapy with the right client at the right time and the right stage of living† (Clinton and Ohlschlager, 2002, p. 176). However, the Bible is the authoritative source of truth, and an effective Christian counselor will evaluate the moral and spiritual quality of every theory and method they use in his or her clinical practice. _Ethical Considerations_ Value conflicts between clients and therapists are inevitable, especially for Christian counselors working within a secular environment. Although Christian counselors may not always agree with the values of their clients, it is essential that they respect the rights of their clients to hold a different set of values (Hermann & Herlihy, 2006). It is also essential for Christian counselors to inform potential clients in writing, as part of the informed consent document, about their religious beliefs and values to avoid certain ethical and legal issues as described in the following court case. _Bruff v. North Mississippi Health Services, Inc., 2001_ is an interesting case that illustrates the complexity counselors confront when their value  system and religious beliefs conflict with the client’s presenting problem. In 2001, the United States Court of Appeals â€Å"upheld the job termination of a counselor who requested being excused from counseling a lesbian client on relationship issues because homosexuality conflicted with the counselor’s religious beliefs† (Hermann & Herlihy, 2006, p. 414). This case illustrates both legal and ethical issues related to value imposition and conflict of values between client and counselor. The American Counseling Association’s (ACA, 2005) _ACA_ _Code of Ethics_ states that counselors need to be â€Å"aware of their own values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors and avoid imposing values that are inconsistent with counseling goals† (A.4.b). Working with clients who hold different values can be challenging for counselors. It can be especially difficult for Christian counselors if those values challenge their religious values and beliefs. However, counselors must respect these differing values of clients and take care not to impose their values in the counseling relationship (Hermann & Herlihy, 2006). This case has particular implications for Christian counselors who find it difficult to reconcile their religious values regarding certain client issues. It is important for Christian counselors to include Christ and to incorporate Christian principles into the therapy process. However, Christian counselors’ primary responsibility is to â€Å"uphold the inherent, God-given dignity of every human person† (AACC, 2004, 1-101). Because it is unrealistic to assume that counselors will not incorporate certain value orientations into their therapeutic approaches and methods, Christian counselors have an ethical duty to clarify their assumptions, core beliefs, and values with the client during the intake session. â€Å"It is vital to be open about values but not coercive, to be a competent professional and not a missionary for a particular belief, and at the same time to be honest enough to recognize how one’s value commitments may not promote health† (Bergin, 199 1, p. 399). Personal Applications Current data indicates that no single theory or model adequately accounts for the complexity of human behavior. Counselors will have to learn and apply an eclectic mix of therapy models and techniques to accommodate the complexity of these modern times. Christian counselors will need to consider biological, psychological, spiritual, social, cultural, economic, and environmental factors when assessing, diagnosing, and treating the unique needs of the client (Clinton & Ohlschlager, 2002). Integrating spiritual direction into psychotherapy and counseling enables the counselee to focus on increasing awareness of God and facilitating surrender to God’s will (Willard, 2000). The conclusions I have made from what I have learned about the biblical views and professional views of counseling are that there is a place for employing both psychotherapeutic techniques and spiritual direction in the counseling process, but it is essential to practice such integration in a ethical, helpful, and wise manner. Christian counselors must use discernment when incorporating secular theories and techniques into their practice and they must be wise when incorporating spiritual disciplines into the therapy relationship. The Bible is our resource, it is the foundation for truth by which everything else is evaluated, and it is sufficient in what we need to instruct one another on how to live an abundant life (2 Timothy 3:16-17; 1 Thessalonians 5:13). Christian counselors must refer to the Bible to distinguish good counseling from bad counseling. Both appropriate and inappropriate counsel is illustrated in the story of Rehoboam, who chose to ignore the advice (etsah) of the older counselors, and instead listened to his young and immature peers. Their counsel lacked a careful examination of the situation, and resulted in disastrous consequences (1 Kings 12:1-15). Wise Christian counselors are careful to gather information and examine a situation as they help their clients. It is imperative that Christian counselors consistently ask God for the wisdom (James 1:5) to choose the godly path (Proverbs (19:21). The ultimate goal of Christian counseling is to facilitate the spiritual  growth of clients, rather than simply alleviating symptoms and finding a resolution to problems. Integrating spiritual disciplines into psychotherapy can be an effective tool in achieving these goals in the therapy process (Tan, 2003b). However, as seen in the _Bruff_ case, counselors must take care not to impose their religious beliefs or values on the client. The client’s autonomy must be respected. Counselors must provide sufficient information regarding therapy to the client, and should include spiritual religious goals and interventions only when proper informed consent is obtained from clients who have expressed interest in pursuing and participating in such goals and interventions. Effective Christian counselors must keep informed of the latest and best information on ESRs and ESTs in order to provide the most effective and efficient forms of psychotherapy and spiritual direction to the client (Tan, 2003a). In addition, Christian counselors should, with the consent of the client, integrate spiritual disciplines into psychotherapy. Effective Christian counselors’ primary focus is on meeting the needs of the client. To meet these needs Christian counselors must first comfort the broken-hearted with a comfort (nacham, parakeleo) that consoles while imparting strength, to encourage while offering a hope for a future (Isaiah 61:1-2). According to Grencavage and Norcross (1990), â€Å"the therapist’s ability to cultivate hope and enhance positive expectancies within the client† (p.374) was one commonality found in the qualities of effective therapists. Recent emphasis on ESRs shows the importance of a strong therapy relationship and is in line with the conclusion that healing occurs when we model the God of comfort and love. â€Å"It is ultimately God who is love who brings wholeness and healing to the hurting people that we minister to through psychotherapy and counseling, using the best ESRs and ESTs available, as long as they are consistent with biblical, Christian truth, ethics, and morality† (Tan, 2003a, 2003). References American Association of Christian Counselors. (2004). _ACA_ _Code of ethics_. Retrieved February 27, 2008, from http://aacc.net/about-us/code-of-ethics/. American Counseling Association. (2005). _AACC Code of ethics._ Retrieved February 27, 2008, from http://www.counseling.org/Resources/CodeOfEthics/TP/Home/CT2.aspx. Averbeck, R. E. (2006). Creation and corruption, redemption and wisdom: A biblical theology foundation for counseling psychology. _Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 25(2),_ 111-126. Retrieved February 23, 2008 from PsycINFO database. Bergin, A. E. (1991) Values and religious issues in psychotherapy and mental health. _American Psychologist_, 46(4), 394-403. Retrieved February 25, 2008 from PsycINFO database. Blue Letter Bible. 20 April 2007. Retrieved February 24, 2008 from: http://www.blueletterbible.org/index.html. Bruff v. North Mississippi Health Services, Inc., 244 F.3d 495 (5th Cir. 2001). Bufford, R. (1997). Consecrated counseling: Reflections on the distinctives of Christian counseling. _Journal of Psychology and Theology_, _25(1),_ 111-122. Retrieved February 23, 2008 from PsycINFO database. Carter, R. (1999). Christian Counseling: An Emerging Specialty. _Counseling & Values_, _43_(3), 189. Retrieved February 25, 2008, from Academic Search Premier database. Clinton, T., & Ohlschlager, G. (Eds.). (2002). _Competent Christian counseling: Foundations and practice of compassionate soul care (Vol. 1)_. Colorado Springs: Waterbrook Press. Collins, G. R. (1996). _How to be a people helper._ Wheaton, IL: Tyndale. Elwell, W. A. (Ed.) (1996). _Baker’s Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology._ Grand Rapids: Baker Books. Retrieved February 24, 2008 from: http://bible.christianity.com/References/DescriptionSearch.aspx?refid=88117&l=174731 §ion=Dictionaries&type=Dictionary. Gladding, S. T. (2007). _Counseling: A comprehensive profession_ (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Grencavage, L. M., Norcross, J. C. (1990). Where are the commonalities among the therapeutic common factors? _Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 21(5),_ 372-378. Guzik, D. â€Å"David Guzik’s Commentary on Acts.† 2001. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from: http://enduringword.com/commentaries/44.html. Guzik, D. â€Å"David Guzik’s Commentary on 2 Corinthians.† 2001. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from: http://www.enduringword.com/commentaries/47.html. Guzik, D. â€Å"David Guzik’s Commentary on Isaiah.† 2006. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from: http://www.enduringword.com/commentaries/23.html. Henry, M. (2006). â€Å"Commentary on Ecclesiastes 12.† _Matthew Henry Commentary on the Whole Bible_. Blue Letter Bible. Retrieved February 24, 2008 from: http://www.blueletterbible.org/Comm/mhc/Ecc/Ecc012.htm. Hermann, M. A., Herlihy, B. R. (2006). Legal and ethical implications of refusing to counsel homosexual clients. _Journal of Counseling & Development, 84(4)_, 414-418. Retrieved February 23, 2008, from PsycINFO database. Johnson, E. L. (2003). How god is good for the soul. _Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 22(1)_, 78-88. Retrieved February 23, 2008 from Academic Search Premier database. Meara, N. M., Schmidt, L. D., & Day, J. D. (1996). Principles and virtues: A foundation for ethical decisions, policies, and character. _The Counseling Psychologist, 24(1),_ 4-77. Retrieved February 23, 2008 from PsycINFO database. Richards, L. O. (1985). _Expository Dictionary of Bible Words_. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Strong, J. (1996). _Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible._ Nashville: Thomas Nelson Reference. Retrieved February 24, 2008 from: http://www.blueletterbible.org/index.html. Tan, S. (2003a). Empirically supported therapy relationships: Psychotherapy relationships that work. _Journal of Psychology and Christianity_, _22(1)_, 64-67. Retrieved February 23, 2008 from PsycINFO database. Tan, S. (2003b). Integrating spiritual direction into psychotherapy: Ethical issues and guidelines. _Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 31(1)_, 14-23. Retrieved February 23, 2008 from PsycINFO database. Vine, W. E. (1940). _Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words._ Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved February 24, 2008 from: http://www.tgm.org/bible.htm. Whiston, S, C., & Sexton, T. L. (1993). An overview of psychotherapy outcome research: Implications for practice. _Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 24(1),_ 43-51. Retrieved February 23, 2008 from PsycINFO database. Willard, D. (2000). Spiritual formation in Christ: A perspective on what it is and how it might be done. _Journal of Psychology and Theology_, 28(4), 254-258. Retrieved February 23, 2008 from PsycINFO database.

Barrows and Pickell model of problem solving Essay

INTRODUCTION This is a case study concerning a patient presenting with low abdominal pain, frequent micturation and dysuria. I will discuss the consultation and show how I used the problem solving consultation style detailed by Alison Crumbie. This involves listening to the patients’ initial complaint and developing hypothetical diagnosis. Focused questioning and clinical examination and investigations will then be used to eliminate some of the initial hypotheses. The patients’ perspective of their problem will be addressed and the synthesis of gathered information will enable the practitioner to arrive at a differential diagnosis and to agree on a treatment plan with the patient so that they can manage their problem. I currently work as a Nurse Practitioner in General Practice in East London. I provide first contact appointments for patients registered with the practice each morning on a walk-in basis. I am a non medical prescriber and generate prescriptions for patients. I work autonomously within my agreed scope of practice and am supported by the structure of a small organisation of professional clinical and administrative staff. The patient , whom I will call Sue, presented in the walk-in Surgery and told me she had had three days of stinging pain on passing urine, increased frequency of passing water and intermittent low abdominal discomfort. She also said that she had a water infection three months previously and that she thought that she now had the same problem. She had tried over the counter (OTC) medications and had increased the amount of fluids she drank with little effect. She said that her abdominal pain reduced after taking paracetamol but reoccurred after a few hours. She requested a prescription of the same antibiotics she had last time she had this problem. Forming the initial conceptMy first impression of Sue was that she was smartly dressed, of normal weight, looked physically well and did not appear to be distressed. She attended alone and I could see from her patient record that she was 25 years old. After introducing myself I asked her two opening questions – ‘how can I help you’ and ‘what brings you here today’. I find by combining open and closed questions in this manner it helps the patient be more focused on their presenting compliant than by using either of these  opening questions alone. I try not to interrupt the patient as they respond and so give them the opportunity to relate what they think the problem is and what it is they think I can do to help them manage this problem. Sue told me that she got a burning pain on passing urine and thought that she had cystitis. She told me that last time she had a similar problem she was given antibiotics tablets. Sue told me that she had tried to self manage with OTC medications for pain relief and for cystitis for the past 2 days but had had no lasting relief from symptoms. She said that a few hours after taking paracetamol her pain returned. My initial concept was of an articulate, well dressed woman, who had decided that she was experiencing a urinary tract infection (UTI), who had tried unsuccessfully to manage her symptoms her self and was now requesting assistance from a health care professional. She appeared systemically well to me but possibly had cystitis. Generating multiple hypothesesA provisional explanation for the patients’ problems could now be attempted. It is important to think as widely as possible about potential causes to generate broad hypotheses which can then be narrowed down with focused enquiry and investigations (Crumbie et all) The quality of hypotheses is dependent on the practitioners experience in eliciting information from the patient and in translating this information into a number of potential scenarios. It is important that the information offered by the patient is understood correctly and not translated badly by the practitioner. For example a patient may say they felt sick and the practitioner understands this as feeling nauseated whilst the patient meant they felt generally unwell. I hypothesised that Sue could be suffering from Cystitis (uncomplicated UTI) , pylonephritis (ascending UTI), eptopic pregnancy, Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID), Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) or constipation. On later reflection I realized I could have though about interstitial cystitis, appendicitis and renal calculi. My multiple hypotheses for this patient are presented in Table 1. Formulating an Inquiry StrategySue had told me that she had pain on passing urine and as I focused my questioning she told me her urine appeared darker in colour than normal and smelled different than usual. She described the pain as stinging and said that it was provoked by micturating and relieved a minute or so after she stopped urinating. I asked her to point to where the pain was in her abdomen and she indicated the suprapubic region. She gauged the pain to be level 6 on a pain scale of 0-10 without analgesia but did say it was relieved by analgesia and resolved to a feeling of pressure rather than pain at that time. Back/loin pain, nausea, vomiting, fever and frank haematuria are all more common with pylonephritis. Sue denied any of these symptoms which made it less likely as a diagnosis ultimately. .On enquiry Sue told me that she used Depo- Provera injections for contraception and dysmenorrhoea and consequently did not menstruate. She also denied any spotting of blood. Her last injection was given in practice 40 days previously and by reviewing her notes I could see her history showed timely attendance for these injections. Although I knew that both dysuria and suprapubic pain can be experience in both normal early pregnancy and in eptopic pregnancy, and that cystitis is more common in pregnant women, I felt I could now discount pregnancy as a cause of her symptoms due to her contraceptive history. I then asked her about her sexual history. Sue told me that she was currently celibate and had not had a sexual relationship for one year. I She told me she had never experienced genital herpes so I felt able to discount STI at this stage. I enquired about her bowel habits and Sue told me that she had passed a soft stool that morning as was her normal routine and that there had been no recent change to bowel actions. This made a diagnosis of constipation less  likely. Whilst enquiring about her symptoms I used Mortens PQRST structured clinical questioning mnemonic. This enabled me to focus my questions and to analyse symptoms and Sues responses. It is especially useful when assessing symptoms of pain and enabled me to detail a focused history of her complaint. I have used this technique extensively since commencing Nurse Practitioner training and have found it easy to remember and that it adds a structure to my questioning that was previously lacking. Incorporating the patients perspectiveFollowing the above questioning, I went on to discuss with Sue her own concept and concerns regarding her presenting complaint. I asked Sue what she thought was causing her problem, what she thought was required to rectify the problems and what could help prevent reoccurrence. She told me that she was sure that she had another episode of cystitis and that she needed antibiotics. Applying appropriate clinical skillsI began with a general inspection of Sue’s external appearance ,her tone of voice and articulation. I recorded her vital signs. She was apyrexial @ 35.6 Celsius and normatensive @ 120/70. Respiratory rate was 12/min and pulse rate 80 bpm. These results are within normal limits for a person of her age. I performed near patient testing in the surgery with urine dip stick testing. This showed a positive response to nitrates and leukocytes. I did not have facilities for near patient pregnancy testing, and on reflection would not have performed one at this time in this case due to her contraceptive history. I chose not to send a test off to the laboratory for pregnancy testing for the same rational. Sue declined an internal exam at this time. I noted from records that Sue had not had a smear test so I offered to do this at this time. After explanation Sue agreed to this. I asked Sue to undress from the waist down and to lie on the examination coach. I ensured that she was comfortable screened and relaxed before commencing the exam. I examined her abdomen using the process taught in Nurse Practitioner  training and described by ( Bickly 2005). I noted her abdomen was of normal appearance with what appeared to be an appendicectomy scar. Sue confirmed that she had had her appendix removed as a child. I auscilated for bowel sounds in the four quadrants and as these were heard and of normal tone I was able to rule out an acute abdominal problem. I then percussed her abdomen and found no change to expected tympani. This helped confirm the patient’s opinion that she was not constipated and after palpation of a soft abdomen I was able to discount this hypothesis at this stage. When I palpated her suprapubic region Sue complained of discomfort, this tenderness is indicative of bladder inflammation. Palpation of the costovertebral angles induced no pain response from Sue and as I recalled her vital signs and presenting history I felt able to exclude pylonephritis also. I then began an exam of Sue’s external genitalia looking for swelling, ulcer, lacerations or discharge. Inflammation and discharge are common with Candida and other vaginal infections. Genital herpes causes ulcerated areas and scratching can cause minor skin lacerations. This external exam was normal. I continued with the vaginal examination. Using a bimanual technique I first felt for Sue’s cervix and palpated it from side to side looking for a positive chandelier sign. If there is infection in the uterus this test can elicit pain. Sue did not have any pain on testing. I then inserted the speculum and examined the vaginal walls for signs of injury or discharge. This was also normal, inspection of the cervix and of the os showed no discharge and this combined with a negative chandelier sign now made the diagnosis of pelvic inflammatory disease less likely. I performed a smear test and took samples for HVS and Chlamydia testing. My initial hypotheses of cystitis now seemed most likely as the cause of symptoms. During this examination sequence I was reminded to consider appendicitis as a hypothesis in the future with this set of presenting symptoms. Developing the problem synthesisWhen I considered the presenting problem, my history and examination findings, and compared them with my original hypotheses I found that I was able to eliminate some at this stage. As Sue had no fever, nausea, haematuria or costovertebral pain I discounted pylonephritis. Bowel history and examinations were normal so constipation was also discounted. As Sue had a record of in date contraceptive cover with an injectable contraceptive and denied sexual intercourse I discounted pregnancy. Although I was aware that Pelvic inflammatory disease could account for her symptoms, examination findings had not supported these hypotheses and were all negative at this stage. When I reviewed the consultation at this stage, recalling the positive urine dip test, the suprapubic tenderness and the patient’s history I was able to be confident that to proceed with the differential diagnosis of cystitis was most appropriate. Diagnostic decision makingMy differential diagnosis was cystitis .I made a differential diagnosis of cystitis for the following reasons:Previous episodeDysuria – pain on micturation and frequencyLow abdominal pain – provoked by palpation of suprapubic areaNo systemic signs/ vital signs normalNo red flags – haematuria, pregnancy, recent change of sexual partnerPositive urine test for nitrates and leukocytesTherapeutic decision makingSue had come to surgery with the idea the she required antibiotics to treat her self diagnosed cystitis. She wanted her health care provider to facilitate this request. She had tried self management and used OTC preparations before presenting in surgery. This showed me that she was motivated in trying to achieve resolution of her problem. As these measures had not been successful in this instance we could agree a short course of oral antibiotics would be an appropriate treatment plan. As I had access to Sues health record I could see that she had been prescribed trimethoprin previously. Sue confirmed that she had no side effects from this medication and that she was willing to take it. As there were no contraindications for  prescribing trimethoprin for this patient I issued her with a prescription for 1 x 200mg tablet, twice a day for three days. This is in line with prodigy guidance and local prescribing policy. As this was the treatment plan Sue had originally requested I was confident of concordance. I discussed with Sue some steps she could take to try and prevent reoccurrence of infection. These includes toilet hygiene (front to back wiping), post-coital micturation, regular voiding and reiterated early symptom self help measures with increased fluid intake and OTC cystitis remedies. I also provided Sue with a printed Patient Information Leaflet about self help measure for women with cystitis. I advised Sue that she should find her symptoms improving within the next 24 hours and asked to return to either the practice or the NHS Walk in Centre (depending on hours of opening) if she had no improvement in 48 hours or if her symptoms changed and she became feverish or pain increased. I explained that these could be signs that the infection was moving up towards her kidneys and that this would require urgent review. I explained that I had given her an antibiotic which would work for the majority of infections but that on some occasions is not effective and a different antibiotic is necessary. I provided her with this information so that she could make sense of any change in symptoms and would be more likely to present earlier for a consultation with a health care professional if there was treatment failure. Reflection in and on practiceI felt that this was a satisfactory consultation for both the patient and me. It began with the patient stating that she thought she knew what was wrong with her and what action needed to be taken to resolve the problem. By listening to the patient’s story I was able to make an analysis of her responses and to think of a number of multiple hypotheses. Proceeding with focused inquiry and utilizing clinical examination skills enabled me to discount some of these hypotheses, and by using structure, reminded me of hypotheses I had originally forgotten to include. I was able to facilitate an unexpected health intervention when the patient and carry out  opportunistic smear testing. Following on from this I was able to reach a diagnostic decision and make therapeutic interventions. Throughout I was communicating with the patient, offering education and involving her in her care which should translate to better concordance with treatment plans and improved patient satisfaction with the consultation. This consultation took me 18 minutes to conclude and although I feel that I covered a wide range of potential hypotheses concerning the initial complaint and responded effectively to the patients concerns, I did feel time pressured. On reflection I need to be able to balance the quality of the consultation with the quantity of patients requiring attention during a session. I could have asked Sue to book another appointment for a smear test which would have enabled me to manage my time better but at the expense of patient distress and an incomplete patient episode. It has been my experience to be critisised by my medical colleuges about the time taken for consultations and they are in fact able to move patients through the surgery quicker than I can. Although this is a recurrent problem I believe that the most prevalent reason for this is that in using this model of consultation the practitioner addresses a wider range of potential hypotheses and that these can lead on to other health issues which then need addressing as demonstrated above. When I discussed this with my GP mentor he said that he would have probably tested her urine first and as it was positive for infection, prescribe an antibiotic after enquiring about her risk of pregnancy and not have addressed any other history at that stage. If he had wanted further testing, he would have asked her to make a nurse appointment. It would be interesting to see which approach is preferred by the patient and most satisfactory for the clinician. ConclusionThis case study looked at a consultation where a patient presented with possible cystitis and requested antibiotics. After following a structured consultation and diagnostic style I was able to reach agreement with the patient and to provide a prescription for antibiotics. This was a satisfactory conclusion for both the patient and me. I was also able to  address a secondary health enquiry and opportunistically provide a smear test which was of additional benefit for the patient and the practice, as auditing will show this patient to now have had a smear test which has positive financial implications for the practice.

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Judaism religion and practices Essay Example for Free

Judaism religion and practices Essay Judaism is a religion that is practiced mostly by the residents of the Jewish country, all followers of Judaism whether they are born in the Jewish country or not are called Jews. Judaism is the Jews monotheistic religion which traces its genesis to Abraham, its ethical and spiritual principles are engulfed mainly in the Talmud and the scriptures of the Hebrews. This religion is mostly characterized with the traditional rites and ceremonies of the Jewish people and religion. Its practices are also deeply rooted in the religious, social, and cultural practices of the Jewish people who consider themselves as one community or people (Steinberg, 1965). Judaism religion and practices Judaism is based on the premises of monotheism, the belief of a special covenant with the almighty God that makes the Jews to claim that they are the God’s chosen people. It is also based on the territorial and ethnic identity, whereby the territory of the Jews is known as the Promised Land. This religion has specific laws and practices. The origin of Judaism finds its roots either from the formulation of monotheism by Moses or God’s covenant with Abraham, the religion recognizes that the laws attributed to Moses incorporated the Pentateuch. However, the political part of Judaism is much related to King David, the king who had Judah as his capital and who planned the Jerusalem temple, which was later built by Solomon who was his son. During the period of the Jewish captivity in Babylon the Judaism religion was much consolidated, the Mosaic was also written during this period (Grabbe, 2000). The Jews believe that the difference between civil and divine law is not clear at all. They believe that the supreme power comes from God and thus the command of God is law, whether it is civil or religious. The Mosaic Law dates back to the 5th BC. This law was then interpreted by Midrash and the Talmud. The Talmud incorporates civil and religious laws that are not in the Torah as proper and thus goes ahead to explain them (Steinberg, 1965). The Jews firmly believe that they are the God’s chosen people who have the duty of shedding light to all other nations around the world. God made a covenant with the Jews through Abraham and later renewed the same covenant with Moses, Isaac and Jacob. The worship of Yahweh was mainly centralized in Jerusalem ever since the time of King David. The demolition of the 1st Jerusalem temple by the people of Babylon which was later followed by the Jews exile ushered in a new hope of national reinstallation under messiah leadership. The Persians later freed them from exile, but the rebellion failed against the Romans made the second temple to be destroyed and the subsequent dispersal of the Jews around the world (Grabbe, 2000). Judaism religion emerged to substitute the practices and beliefs linked with the Jerusalem temple, this was mainly because the Jews carried with them their religion and culture through their strict observance and via a scholarship of tradition. The greatest part of the commentaries and oral law were written down by the Mishna and Talmud. Judaism religion continued despite that it experienced very harsh persecutions by several nations around the world (Steinberg, 1965). The Judaism religion regards itself as a widespread religion; this is due to the fact that it views is laws to be appropriate for all mankind. It has a distinction between the non Jews and the Jews. The traditional Judaism requires all the Jews to follow all the commandments found in the Bible. On the other hand the non Jews should only follow seven laws out of the six hundred and thirteen laws. These seven laws demand that everyone whether a Jew or a non Jew to believe in only one God, they forbid murder, blasphemy, sexual immorality and theft. They also prevent anyone from feeding on a living creature’s limb. The seven laws also mandate the setting up of law courts. The Jews believe that, a non Jew who follows all the seven laws to be righteous, and is therefore, just like a Jew who follows all the six hundred and thirteen laws that are upon him (Fine, 2001). The fundamental orientation of Judaism is practical. It has no body of doctrine that is officially recognized, but it has various beliefs that are quite essential to all the Jews. The Jewish belief is rooted in the Jewish law and not in any systematic Theology. The issue about punishment and reward in life after death is a new development in this religion. Pre occupation and asceticism with life after death are discouraged. Redemption is obtained via good conduct and not through faith. Judaism believes that everyone has a duty to contribute towards perfecting this world (Steinberg, 1965). The practice of this religion of Judaism has never been restricted to only the people who were born of the Jewish community. However, the attitudes towards one being converted to Judaism have varied significantly in various localities and periods. It has always been doable for the non Jews to join Judaism. In fact, some of the greatest individuals of Judaism were either people who had been converted into Judaism or their descendants. A good example is King David; he was one of Ruth’s descendants. Since people hood and religion are quite inseparable in the religion of Judaism, acceptance of the beliefs of Judaism makes one to eventually become one of the Jewish people (Grabbe, 2000). Judaism emphasizes that each and every Jew should be responsible for the other and they should therefore live like one big community, this has made the Jews to develop a great sense of unity. No Jew should look at another Jew nonchalantly when he or she is suffering. They are required to do all that is possible to make sure that they alleviate such Jews from the suffering they are going through. Hebrew does not have charity, but it uses tsedakah which means justice. It means that it is only proper and just for those Jews who are blessed with more to share them with the less fortunate Jews in the society. The Jews mutual responsibility for each other stretches to include even violation of law cases: if a Jew finds another Jew violating the law, he or she is supposed to rebuke the Jew who is violating the law (Fine, 2001). Judaism religion also emphasizes on the need to elevate profane to the holiness state. Thus, most of what would have been considered ordinary includes ritual components which are intended to sanctify. For example, while eating there has to be benedictions before starting to eat the food and after eating it. This makes the table to be similar to the altar. Judaism has a lot of laws which are meant to regulate the daily life of the Jews; the aim of this regulation is to modify the actions of man into God’s service. Judaism also regards the restrictions of Torah myriad upon the conduct of a Jew as ones that elevates him. It views the uncontrolled expression of mankind’s appetite similar to that of the animals and the control measures placed upon mankind serves him by raising him higher. Thus, before a Jew eats any food, he has to first consider whether the food in question meets all the dietary law requirements. If it fails in any then he cannot proceed to eat it as he will consider doing so as violating the law (Fine, 2001). Asceticism is not considered as a virtue in Judaism. The Midrash provides that when everyone accounts for herself or him self following his or her death, such a person has to account for all the allowed pleasures of the world which he restricted himself from doing while on earth (Grabbe, 2000). Conclusion Judaism religion is mainly found in among the people of the Jewish nation but has never been restricted among these people only as it also accepts people from other origins to join them and thus practice the doctrines of the religion. The Jews, who are the members of Judaism, consider themselves to be the people who have been chosen by God and thus all other tribes in the world should follow them. The laws of the Jews, according to Judaism are applicable in all circumstances to all nations around the world which makes the Jews to claim that their religion is universal. Reference: Fine, L. (2001): Judaism in practice: from the middle Ages through the early modern period; ISBN 0691057877, Princeton University Press. Grabbe, L. L. (2000): Judaic Religion in the Second Temple Period: Belief and Practice from the Exile to Yavneh; ISBN 0415212502, Routledge. Steinberg, M. (1965): Basic Judaism; ISBN 0156106981, Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.

Ethics in Urban Planning Essay Example for Free

Ethics in Urban Planning Essay What is the law on eminent domain all about? Eminent Domain is the power of the State over all the properties within its jurisdiction, both public and private. The purpose being to empower the State to appropriate property for public use – for new and road widening projects, bridges, military installations, public parks and even urban renewal (Larson, 2004). In case of private properties, how does eminent domain apply? Well, properties that the Government deems as vital for public use and welfare can be seized from private owners based on the provisions of the law on eminent domain. But the Constitution, particularly the Fifth Amendment, guaranties that â€Å"No person shall be †¦ deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation† (Hornberger, 2005). Is the law on eminent domain ethical? The answer is an absolute no. It may be legal but it does not hold any moral definition. It is still classified as large-scale theft that is backed up by legal parameters. We live based on the principles of morality that abhors theft. In fact, the customs and laws of all civilized societies prohibit any form of banditry. In the exercise of our individual freedom, we as a people have the right to use our property in ways we deemed fit – unless we infringe on the rights of other people (Tenney, 1995). In our democratic system, do we exercise our right of suffrage to make stealing legal? It sounds like people casting their votes simply because they wanted your property sequestered. Where do ethics apply then? What are the consequences? Basically, the law on eminent domain was enacted to provide a leeway for the government in the planning of its developmental projects. Projects include road improvement, probably runway extensions or perhaps public hospitals. Private lands are purchased by the government for this purpose, based on a fair market value and as guaranteed by the Constitution. This provision becomes necessary so that the government can proceed with development without the process of lengthy litigation. Lately however, the scenario has been altered with the law on eminent domain applied even on urban renewal. This is where the abuse of discretion engages a number of government officials, all in the guise of development. This scheme is morally repugnant though it does not end at that point because with the eminent domain as the carrot stick, this marginally reduces the purchase price of the property. What has government got to do with it (Tenney, 1995)? Remember that development plans rests solely on the hands of government, so a slight deviation on the zoning area reclassification would normally affect property values. Imagine if your property lies on a commercial zone and the government suddenly establishes it as part of an industrial zone, the real estate property value is likely to plummet due to rising environmental concerns. The consequence is you are likely to sell it at much reduced price. But this scheme is just the tip of the iceberg, as more devious schemes are in the offing. The most unforgiving plan of government involves the declaration of a specific area as suffering from urban blight. Blighted areas, for purposes of urban renewal, refers to areas that in the process of deterioration being a haven of uncontrolled vices (drug addicts, alcoholics and other scum of society) where the crime rate is really high or an area that is already rendered useless which may include vacant lands and air rights. Who will then determine if the property falls under the category of blighted areas? This will be up to the discretion of the government and most likely this is where abuse is glaringly documented, particularly in cases where the government is in cahoots with property developers. When this happens, government has the right to raze the property and sell it to developers with the intention of making it into an attractive urban development (Blight, 2001). In most instances areas that are declared â€Å"urban blights† normally conforms to urban redevelopment. Areas that suffer from these types of classifications are low-cost housing communities with correspondingly low revenues where homeowners who have been in domicile for years while paying regular amortization to secure rights to the property. In these instances, these homeowners are suddenly met with the prospects of relocation. With the area categorized as such, the real property value is extremely low that the proceeds of the sale are not even enough to pay for the downpayment for another unit in a new housing development site (Parlow, 2007). What about areas in commercial districts that have been subjected to the process of eminent domain? The owner may have lived or conducted business in the area for the past twenty years but the government has the temerity to invoke the provisions of eminent domain to take control of said property simply because the adjacent school needs a playground or perhaps a football field. Where do ethics come in or is this just plain common sense? If you are the owner of the property, will you be not in arms to stop the proceedings? Where is morality then? We trumpet the virtues of democracy to the outside world and yet in our own backyard we practice anarchy (Parlow, 2007). This will all redound to displacement of all families affected by the claws of eminent domain. Families will be evicted from their properties good if there is a ready site for relocation at least people can endure the inconvenience. But in most cases no relocation areas have been secured. Families will now be subjected to the task of searching for a new place as a consequence of eviction. What about their transportation need to and from work, school for their children and perhaps the affordable medical services that were readily available in their previous area (Blight, 2001). The final consequence maybe and I hope that this will not be met by evicted homeowners or storeowners or they could be relegated as the new scum of society, being degraded to a bunch of homeless citizens that have the potential of creating troubles for the government. The government shall have increased the problems associated with the housing needs and get the ire of the population. What then has this accomplished for the government in the end? Nothing, except perhaps that it compounds the problems of the locality (Hornberger, 2005). The law really smacks moral decadence, for how can you humanly evict families from their abodes without paying them fairly. Some may have inherited the property and as an ancestral abode, no amount would suffice in return for its sentimental value in the same way that no amount could compensate for the Statue of Liberty, being the symbol of freedom that Americans deeply treasure. How can you possibly sell an heirloom – a gift from the people of France, this is no longer a question of ethics, not even morality though it borders on bad taste and greed. What are the effects? Proponents of the measure on eminent domain will always sing the sad melody of development. Be that as it may, we can never stop development from happening because it is dictated by the social status of the locality. But can we not negotiate with property owners so they can also profit from the property they have tenuously preserved and paid for? It is more of a question of fair value for their property, an issue that is often ignored. Even for this gesture alone, the government, particularly the developers will benefit from the support and approval of the property owners. Let us not bully our neighbors by invoking the right of eminent domain, because that simply will not work. Who then does not desire physical development? When it means convenience to the inhabitants, particularly interchanges, super-highways, a modern airport terminal, a dazzling sports arena, an upbeat school campus or a modern hospital. Urban development on formerly blighted areas will be a big boost to the local trade as new shopping malls, five-star hotels, office towers and condominiums will be constructed. The local labor force will benefit as well, since hundreds or maybe thousands of jobs will be made available. It will be a shot in the arm for the local economy since development will encourage a lot of investors to take a chance on the improved infrastructure facilities. The government will likewise benefit from increased revenues and create more funds to finance the needs of local inhabitants. But most of all, this would drastically alter the locality’s image and skyline for the better. With a booming economy, the government can now plan ahead. Maybe exploit some more the bonanza that the new development concurred and build additional facilities to meet the increasing population requirements. As the citizen’s quality of life improves, new facilities will be needed, housing shortage will be felt, traffic congestion is possible as more and more cars will ply the streets and entertainment will be the call of the majority. The problems associated with crime and security will quadruple, new personnel will be added, police cars and gadgets will be required by our law enforcement agencies. There will be no stopping, once the wheel of development starts to roll. Then when everything seems to have settled and everybody is accustomed to the set-up, the arms of development will try to break the already serene environment. So the government will now invoke their right of eminent domain and the result, chaos strikes once again. It will be an unending cycle. The population will simply have to bear inconvenience and unfair treatment in the name of development. It is in the outlying implementation of eminent domain that government failed because officials can be motivated only with the expected revenues from the urban renewal project to disregard their main advocacy and moral obligation to its constituents – to promote, protect, and upheld the rights of the populace. Conclusion The moral and ethical question of the law on eminent domain had been subjected to criticisms from all sectors of society. It may be an effective tool for government to spice up development, but it oftentimes falls oppressive to many property owners. Sadly, the people’s right to their property has been trampled once again with no less than the Supreme Court of the United States stamping its approval on the right of government to invoke the provisions of eminent domain. Consider this. In 1954 the Supreme Court gave a ruling in a controversial case that â€Å"effectively gave government officials unlimited power to confiscate and redistribute lands†, arguing that â€Å"the concept of public welfare is broad and inclusive. The values it represents are spiritual as well as physical, aesthetic and monetary. It is within the power of the legislature to determine that the community should be beautiful as well as healthy, spacious as well as clean, well-balanced as well as carefully patrolled† (Tenney, 1995). The comment of the High Court was indeed a chilling premonition since this gave government officials the legal right to evict anybody from their properties when necessary and at their convenience. In effect this erased the intentions of our forefathers and the framers of the Constitution the absolute right of individuals to hold on to their properties (Tenney, 1995). Just recently, in a new and daunting case of Kelo vs. City of New London, Connecticut, the High Court upheld the previous ruling of 1954. In fact after due proceedings, a notice was posted at the door of the petitioner’s home stating that the petitioner have four months to vacate the property or else power police power will be used to prosecute the order based on the power of eminent domain (Larson, 2004). Is the ruling even fair? Is it morally correct to inflict undue suffering to the respondents? And is it ethical? The answer is no. That is why all the States of the Union are putting up legislations to curb the damning influence and abuse on the power of the law on eminent domain. How it will affect the future, your guess will be as good as mine!

Natural Output Levels: Fiscal and Monetary Policy Impact

Natural Output Levels: Fiscal and Monetary Policy Impact In this essay I discuss whether the fiscal and monetary policy has impact on the natural level of output. Natural level of output, in other words potential output is a total gross domestic product (GDP) that could be produced by an economy if all its resources were fully employed. This means if the economy is at natural level of output, the unemployment rate equals the NAIRU or the natural rate of unemployment and other factories, such as technology and capital are kept at optimal capacity level. We can derive the natural level of output function. It is given by: Yn=Nn=L(1-un) where natural level of output is equal to natural level of employment and it is equal to the labor force L times 1 minus the natural rate unemployment rate un. In addition, the natural level of output satisfies this equation: F((1-Yn)/L,z)=1/(1+ÃŽÂ ¼) The natural level of output is such that, at the associated rate of unemployment, the real wage chosen in wage setting the left side of equation is equal to the real wage implied by price setting the right side of equation. However, it is hard to change the natural level of output as it is difficult to change the natural level of unemployment. Lets consider why natural unemployment rate cannot be changed by government policies. Famous economists Friedman and Phelps explained that using Phillips curve. They opposed this idea on theoretical grounds, as they noted that if unemployment was to be permanently lower, some real variable in the economy, like the real wage, would have changed permanently. Why this should be the case because inflation was higher, appeared to rely on systematic irrationality in the labor market. As Friedman remarked, wage inflation would eventually catch up and leave the real wage, and unemployment, unchanged. Hence, lower unemployment could only be attained as long as wage inflation and inflation expectations lagged behind actual inflation. This was seen to be only a temporary outcome. Eventually, unemployment would return to the rate determined by real factors independent of the inflation rate. According to Friedman and Phelps, the Phillips curve was therefore vertical in the long run, and expansive demand policies would only be a cause of inflation, not a cause of permanently lower unemployment. The policy implication is that the natural rate of unemployment cannot permanently be reduced by demand management policies (including monetary policy), but that such policies can play a role in stabilizing variations in actual unemployment. So, we should find out what exactly impact the government policies have to the countrys economy. Firstly, we should consider monetary policy and whether it has affect to the natural level of output. Monetary policy is the process a government, central bank, or monetary authority of a country uses to control the supply of money, availability of money, and cost of money or rate of interest to attain a set of objectives oriented towards the growth and stability of the economy. Monetary policy is referred to as either being an expansionary policy, or a contractionary policy, where an expansionary policy increases the total supply of money in the economy, and a contractionary policy decreases the total money supply. Expansionary policy is traditionally used to combat unemployment in a recession by lowering interest rates, while contractionary policy involves raising interest rates to combat inflation. Lets look how the monetary policy is working and that is then happening to equilibrium output. Suppose that government is running the expansionary monetary policy and increase the level of nominal money from M to M. Assume that before the change in nominal money, output is at its natura l level. So now we will try to find out does the monetary policy affect the natural level of output. In the Figure 1 we see that aggregate demand and aggregate supply cross at point A, where the level of output is equals Yn, and the price level equals P. Figure 1. Suppose the nominal money level increase. Remember the equation Y=Y(M/P,G,T). For a given price level P, the increase in nominal money M leads to an increase in the real money stock M/P leading to an increase in output. Aggregate demand curve shifts from AD to AD. In the short run economys equilibrium goes from A to A, output increases from Yn to Y and prices increases from P to P. Over time, the equilibrium changes. As output is higher than the natural level of output, the price level is higher than was expected so the wage setters revise their expectations which cause AS curve to shift up. The economy moves up along the aggregate demand curve, AD. The adjustment process stops when output is returned to the natural level of output. In the medium run the aggregate supply curve is AS, the economy is at point A and the price level have rose and is equal to P. So the only effect achieved by monetary policy in medium run is price level rise. The proportional increase in the nominal money stock is equal to the proportional increase in prices. So we can see that expansionary monetary policy did not affect the natural level of output. We should consider why it did not succeed. As we know that stabilizing inflation will also stabilize output at its natural level, so it suggest assumption that monetary policy does not affect natural level of output, but only changes real level of output and returns it to the position of natural level of output. So, in the short run, monetary policy affects the level of real output as well as its composition: an increase in money leads to a decrease in interest rates and a depreciation of the currency. Both of these lead to an increase in the demand for goods and an increase in output. In the medium run and the long run, monetary policy is neutral: changes in either the level or the rate of growth of money have no effect on output or unemployment, so it cannot affect the natural level of unemployment and the natural level of output. Changes in the level of money lead to proportional increase in prices. Changes in the rate of nominal money growth lead to corresponding changes in the inflation rate. Secondly, we should consider the fiscal policy and whether it affects the natural level of output. Fiscal policy is the use of government expenditure and revenue collection to influence the economy. Fiscal policy can be contrasted with the other main type of economic policy, monetary policy, which attempts to stabilize the economy by controlling interest rates and the supply of money. The two main instruments of fiscal policy are government expenditure and taxation. Changes in the level and composition of taxation and government spending can impact on the following variables in the economy: aggregate demand and the level of economic activity; the pattern of resource allocation; the distribution of income. Lets consider the fiscal policy impact to countrys economy and natural level of output. Take an example the government is running a budget deficit and decides to reduce it by decreasing it spending from G to G and leave taxes T unchanged. Assume that output is initially at the natural level of output so that the economy is at point A in figure 2 and output equals Yn. Figure 2. The decrease in government spending from G to G shifts the aggregate demand curve from AD to AD: for a given price level, output is lower. In the short run, the equilibrium moves from A to A: output decreases from Yn to Y, and the price level decreases from P to P. As we can see the deficit reduction leads to lower output. In the medium run as long as output is below the natural level of output, the aggregate supply curve keeps shifting down. The economy moves down along the aggregate demand curve AD, until the aggregate supply curve is given by AS and the economy reaches point A. By then, the recession is over, and output is back at Yn. Like an increase in nominal money, a reduction in the budget deficit does not affect output forever. Eventually, output returns to its natural level. However there is an important difference between the effect of a change in money and the effect of a change in deficit. In this case output is back to the natural level of output, but the price level and the interest rate are lower than before the shift. So we can conclude that fiscal policy cannot affect the natural level of output it only affects the real level of output which in the medium and long run comes back to its natural level. Thirdly, we should consider whether government has any other policy that can affect the natural level of output. We have find out neither fiscal nor monetary policy cannot affect the natural level of output by itself. However, using both of these policies together in appropriate way can cause a desirable result and a change the natural level of output. Lets look in Figure 3, which shows the mix of monetary and fiscal policy. There are two ways to stabilize income at Y*, which is the natural level of output. First, there is expansionary or easy fiscal policy. This leads to a high IS schedule IS1. To keep income in check with such an expansionary fiscal policy, tight monetary policy is needed. Government choose a low money supply target, which is represented by LM1 schedule in the Figure 3. Equilibrium E1 is at output Y*, but has the high interest rate r1. With high government spending, private demand must be kept in check. The mix of easy fiscal policy and tight monetary policy implie s government spending G is a big part of national income Y* but private spending (C + I) is a small part. Alternatively, government interested in long-run growth may choose a tight fiscal policy and easy monetary policy. In this case target income Y* is attained with a lower interest rate r2 at the equilibrium E2. With easy monetary policy and tight fiscal policy, the share of private expenditure (C + I) is higher, and the share of government expenditure lower, than at E1. With lower interest rates, there is less crowding out of private expenditure. It rises the investment level and high investment increases the capital stock more quickly, giving workers more equipment with which to work and raising their productivity. In the long run it will cause the growth of the natural output level. Figure 3. Income Y* Interest rates r1 r2 E1 LM1 LM0 IS0 IS1 E4 E3 E2 So we can make a conclusion, that neither the fiscal nor the monetary policy can affect the natural level of output working separately. Though, if the government uses both policies, this mean use the mix of monetary and fiscal policies, for example for expanding the government spending on such things as basic research, public health, education, and infrastructure, this will cause the long-term growth of potential output. EGovernment: History, Causes and Trends EGovernment: History, Causes and Trends BENCHMARKING EGOVERNMENT SERVICES Abstract: Governments around the world have embraced the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). This represents a relatively new branch of study within the IT field. EGovernment Services are provided through many different means of access and to a variance of audiences, citizens, businesses or even other governmental entities. After clarifying the definitions and differences among similar terms (i.e. eGovernance and Digital Government, eDemocracy) this paper examines how eGovernment is measured by analyzing the dominating methodologies that are used. Furthermore, following specifically the eGovernment benchmarking methodology that is used by the European Commission, a greater focus in the evolution of eGovernment in Greece has been made. The finding through this assessment was far from satisfactory. Particularly, comparing the 20 Basic eGovernment Services offered in Greece, from 2007 to 2009, no development in terms of improvement, has taken place. Finally, the measures tha t governments need to undertake are discussed. Introduction In the past years, assisted by the invasion of Information Technology in everyday lives, governments all over the world have begun widely using information technologies for increasing the effectiveness and quality of the services they provide. These initiatives have become known as â€Å"electronic government† or eGovernment services. In most cases, when words gain that attractive â€Å"e-â€Å" in front of them, the popular belief is that they have become â€Å"electronic†, whatever that means, even though in some cases it does not make much sense. This confusion is much more obvious when the original word itself has conceptual and abstract meanings. Words like Government and Governance. Section I presents the most popular definitions, choosing the one that describe each term the best, and clarifies boundaries between the most common terms. Furthermore, the different ways that eGovernment can be classified, depending on the delivery model or the audience, is outlined. Although the definitions of eGovernment may vary widely, there an obvious shared theme emerges; eGovernment involves using information technology, and especially the Internet, to improve the delivery of government services to citizens, businesses, and other government agencies. It acts as enabler for citizens to interact and receive services from governments twenty four hours a day, seven days a week. Monitoring eGovernment development and evaluating its effectiveness is a complex and challenging task, as the phenomenon is new and dynamic. In Section II, the basics of Benchmarking are presented and its structural elements are analyzed. Focusing on specific examples of methodology used, a set of four dominant practices that represent the longest running efforts for measuring eGovernment is chosen to be explored further. Using the reports publish by each one of them, on a periodical basis, their inner workings are analyzed and the various developments, changes and evolutions in the methods employed by each one are mentioned. Section III focuses at benchmarking of eGovernment Services in Europe. In order to recognize how eGovernment has evolved and matured within the European Union, the relevant European directives, initiatives and frameworks for the development of eGovernment Services in the region since 1999 are examined. Following that, the methodology used for benchmarking eGovernment the European Union is examined in detail. All measuring elements, including some that were used for the first time in the most recently published report are evaluated. Having established what eGovernment is, what Benchmarking is and how its methodologies function, Section IV uses the data from the latest European eGovernment Benchmarking Report, which was published in November 2009, to assess how the Greek eGovernment landscape evolved since the previous report in 2007. The results are disappointing. When comparing the 20 Basic eGovernment Services offered in Greece, there was no improvement, what so ever, from 2007 to 2009. Following that, Greek performance in the two new indices introduced in the latest report (EProcurement and User Experience) is reported and compared to the respective EU27+ average. Finally, in Section V, a general overview is provided along with the conclusions about the (lack of) progress in eGovernment in Greece. Scope and aims The scope of this project is to analyze how the meaning of eGovernment has evolved in the past few years and then review the current trends in benchmarking the penetration sophistication of eGovernment services in Europe and the rest of the world. Furthermore, this project reports and analyses the level of eGovernment services offered in Greece. The basic aims of this project are: Define the eGovernment ecosystem, typology and taxonomy. Analyse the dominant methodologies of benchmarking eGovernment services Gather and process existing results about eGovernment in Greece, regarding service penetration and sophistication, along with other relevant metrics. Resources This project relies heavily on research. In particular, a lot of research on what the different and sometimes contradicting terms that define eGovernment as well as the rest of the relevant terms in academic papers throughout the previous decade was made. Following that, further research about the current and past trends in benchmarking in general and eGovernment benchmarking in particular are is conducted. From there on, having established what eGovernment is and what the provided services should be, along with how they are measured, more research was conducted in order to reveal what the actual current level of provided eGovernment services is. To accomplish this, reports from many different parties are used. These include reports published both by well knows analyst firms or government bodies in various levels as well as reports issued at a global level such as the United Nations to local reports issued by the authorities of each country such as the IT Observatory in Greece. Typology Convention Throughout the bibliography, or any other sort of resource for that matter, â€Å"electronic† terms do not have a consistent representation. So, just like electronic mail can be found abbreviated in quite a few forms, â€Å"electronic† Government is abbreviated to eGovernment, e-Government, E-Government etc. To avoid this inconsistency, through this project the term eGovernment will be used (changed to EGovernment only in the beginning of sentences). This convention will apply to â€Å"electronic† terms that will be used such as eGovernance. I. EGovernment, eGovernance and Digital Governance EGovernment is one more of the recent years â€Å"buzzwords†. It is usually either paired with the word â€Å"services† at the end or other words like eGovernance and Digital Government. Like every other (relatively) new and cool â€Å"buzzword† they are used widely by a broad spectrum of individuals who represent mostly two different backgrounds. Information technology and politics. The first because it is a technological issue, the later because they have come to realize, even though a little late, that they represent an excellent vehicle for them to provide a better experience to anyone who interacts with the Government. But, what do these terms mean? Do they collide or conflict each other? How about covering or including one another? A. EGovernment Definitions There is not one, unique and commonly accepted definition for eGovernment. It is quite difficult to decide over a specific one but after the research made, the following definition from the World Bank (ÃŽ  ÃŽâ€˜ÃŽ ¡ÃŽâ€˜ÃŽ  ÃŽÅ¸ÃŽÅ"ÃŽ  ÃŽâ€") describes it best: â€Å"Government refers to the use by government agencies of information technologies (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and mobile computing) that have the ability to transform relations with citizens, businesses, and other arms of government. These technologies can serve a variety of different ends: better delivery of government services to citizens, improved interactions with business and industry, citizen empowerment through access to information, or more efficient government management. The resulting benefits can be less corruption, increased transparency, greater convenience, revenue growth, and/or cost reductions ((AOEMA), 2004). Although other definitions have been provided, this definition is preferred. The reason is that it is the most concise and the easiest to be understood since apart describing in simple words how eGovernment is utilized, it goes on to offer a very brief, yet to the point, reference to its main advantages. EGovernment definitions various other sources as follows:  · United Nations definition ((AOEMA), 2004): â€Å"E-government is defined as utilizing the Internet and the world-wide-web for delivering government information and services to citizens.† * Global Business Dialogue on Electronic Commerce GBDe definition ((AOEMA), 2004): â€Å"Electronic government (hereafter e-Government) refers to a situation in which administrative, legislative and judicial agencies (including both central and local governments) digitize their internal and external operations and utilize networked systems efficiently to realize better quality in the provision of public services.† * Gartner Groups definition: â€Å"the continuous optimization of service delivery, constituency participation, and governance by transforming internal and external relationships through technology, the Internet and new media.† * Definition of the Working Group on eGovernment in the Developing World: E-government is the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to promote more efficient and effective government, facilitate more accessible government services, allow greater public access to information, and make government more accountable to citizens. E-government might involve delivering services via the Internet, telephone, community centers (self-service or facilitated by others), wireless devices or other communications systems.† EGovernment is in the first stages of development. Most governments have already taken or are taking initiatives offering government services online. However, for the true potential of eGovernment to be realized, government needs to restructure and transform its long entrenched business processes. EGovernment is not simply the process of moving existing government functions to an electronic platform. Rather, it calls for rethinking the way government functions are carried out today to improve some processes, to introduce new ones and to replace those that require it. The range of services that may be provided by e-government spans from simple information sites to fully interactive experiences where users and government engage in a dialog mediated by information technology. Internal information systems of Government agencies, information kiosks, automated telephone information services, SMS services and other systems all comprise e-Government services. All these are applications of Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) to improve the services of the Government towards its primary clients: the citizens. In the last few years, there has been much talk of mobile government or m-government. MGovernment refers to the use of wireless technologies like cellular/mobile phones, laptops and PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) for offering and delivering government services. MGovernment is not a substitute for e-government, rather it complements it. 1. Benefits of eGovernment E-Government initiatives contribute to citizen empowerment by making information about government processes and decisions easily available, and allowing information-sharing among people and organizations, and between citizens and the civil service (Accenture and the Markle Foundation, 2001). Well-informed citizens are better able to hold their governments accountable. Governments are then compelled to improve the quality of services, expand accessibility of these services, and increase responsiveness to their constituents. Many Government services rely on information passed among different offices within a department or across departments. The large amount of information and paperwork required results in an environment where for red tape rips, the workforce is inefficient and bureaucratic, and the delivery of services is ineffective. With the usage of ICT, the government bureaucracy and citizens are both winners in the battle against the paper trail. eGovernment allows government kno wledge and data exchange to be accessed more easily (whether public or secure) by the appropriate offices or individuals. By this, it reduces redundancies of information flows, and resulting in overall increased productivity. Another result of the integration of operations of government agencies is the improvement of transparency in government. EGovernment minimizes redundant information flows, helps to eliminate duplications of functions, and improves the adherence of public servants to proper government procedures, thereby reducing opportunities for corruption. This, provided it is accompanied by well-informed and active citizens, will assist in limiting the relationship between bureaucracy and corruption and will help lead to a higher sense of accountability among officials. B. EGovernment Taxonomy EGovernment can be classified according to different criteria. It can be classified according to its level, its audience and last but certainly not least, according to the delivery mechanism used. 1. Reach EGovernment can be categorized in the following five distinct levels depending on how broad it is. The levels are: * International * National * Regional * State/Provisional * Local These levels are illustrated below (see 1 adapted from Heeks, 2006) 2. Audience The question of where eGovernment originates is pretty much self-explanatory. Nevertheless, the same does not apply when wondering about who is in the receiving end. The answer that first comes to mind is, the citizens. But isnt so. Apart from citizens, there are other entities that are benefited by eGovernment services. According to Backus, â€Å"the three main target groups that can be distinguished in eGovernment concepts are government, citizens and businesses/interest groups. The external strategic objectives focus on citizens and businesses and interest groups, the internal objectives focus on government itself† (Backus, 2001). a) Government to Citizens (G2C) Government to Citizen activities are those in which the government provides, on-line, one-stop access to information and services to citizens. G2C applications allow citizens to ask questions of government agencies and receive answers, such us: * File income taxes * Pay taxes * Arrange driving tests or renew drivers licenses * Pay traffic tickets * Make appointments for vehicle emission inspections and * Change their address In addition, a government could: * Distribute information on the web * Provide downloadable forms online * Conduct training (e.g., in some US States, the classes for the drivers tests are offered online) * Assist citizens in finding employment * Provide touristic and recreational information * Provide health advice about safety issues (e.g. warnings for epidemics like the recent H1N1 virus) * Allow transfer of benefits like food coupons * File natural disaster relief compensation electronically through the use of smart cards; and the list goes on. b) Government to Business (G2B) Government to Business activities refers to those where the government deals with businesses such as suppliers using the Internet and other ICTs. It is a bidirectional interaction and transaction: Government to Business (G2B) and Business to Government (B2G). B2G is about businesses selling products and services to government. The most important G2B areas are eProcurement (which essentially is actually a reverse auction) and the auction of government surpluses. c) Government to Government (G2G) Lastly, Government to Government refers to those activities that take place between different government organizations/agencies/entities. Many of these activities aim to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of overall government operations. One such example is the Intelink, an intranet that carries classified information shared by different U.S. intelligence agencies. 3. Delivery Mechanism EGovernment services are provided not only via the Internet. Instead, many other means are often used. In fact, studies and reports indicate that these â€Å"other† means of eGovernment services provision show in some cases extremely high utilization. For example: * Telephony dominates channel usage in some situations: Accenture (2005) reports 63% of industrialized country respondents contacting government by telephone; compared to 31% using the Internet over a 12-month period. * In-person visits dominate in other situations: an Australian survey reports half of government contacts to be face-to-face compared to one-fifth undertaken via the Internet (AGIMO 2005). * Survey data also reflects an ongoing preference for telephone or in-person channels especially for transactional, problem-solving, urgent and complex interactions (AGIMO 2005, Horrigan 2005). a) Multichannel Examples Some Governments have embraced this reality and adopted a multichannel approach to the services they offer. In its Progress Reports, the European Comission includes some specific examples: * In Malta, citizens can access their personal social security records and payments via the internet, and may also opt to be notified about their social security payments via SMS rather than receiving printed payment advice by post. However, the most innovative initiative is the introduction of eGovernment Agents that act as intermediaries to those without access. (ePractice eGovernment Factsheets Malta, 2009) * In Austria, all websites that belong to the .gv.at domain are available free of charge or connection fees via wireless hotspots (WLAN), and via public kiosks, thanks to an excellent cooperation between the Austrian Government and two major telecommunication providers. Similar to Malta, Austria also has legislation in place allowing officials to act as intermediaries for citizens who do not have online access or a citizen (ePractice eGovernment Factsheets Austria, 2009) * In Spain, 060 is the magic code providing a single access point. Many services provided by different administrations can be accessed via the 060 network, whether they are office-, internet-, or phone-based. Citizens can access the networks 2800 points of presence in the street or their office on the web, by the phone (060) or SMS. The 060 phone number is intended to replace over 1000 phone numbers available for citizens to access information of the General Administration of the State. The network is available 24/7 and currently offers 1225 national, regional and local public services. It is worth noting that In August 2007, only 15 months after its creation, the citizen information phoneline 060 had already dealt with 700000 enquiries. (ePractice eGovernment Factsheets Spain, 2009) C. EGovernance Definitions Just like eGovernment, there is not a single common definition to describe eGovernance. However, the UNESCO defines it best: â€Å"E-governance is the public sectors use of information and communication technologies with the aim of improving information and service delivery, encouraging citizen participation in the decision-making process and making government more accountable, transparent and effective. E-governance involves new styles of leadership, new ways of debating and deciding policy and investment, new ways of accessing education, new ways of listening to citizens and new ways of organizing and delivering information and services. E-governance is generally considered as a wider concept than e-government, since it can bring about a change in the way citizens relate to governments and to each other. E-governance can bring forth new concepts of citizenship, both in terms of citizen needs and responsibilities. Its objective is to engage, enable and empower the citizen.† Other definitions include * â€Å"EGovernance, meaning ‘electronic governance is using information and communication technologies (ICTs) at various levels of the government and the public sector and beyond, for the purpose of enhancing governance.† (Bedi et all, 2001, Holmes , 2001 and Okot-Uma, 2000). * Whereas according to Backus (2001), eGovernance is defined as the, â€Å"application of electronic means in (1) the interaction between government and citizens and government and businesses, as well as (2) in internal government operations to simplify and improve democratic, government and business aspects of Governance.† D. Digital Government The term Digital Governance was introduced more than 7 years ago (McIver Elmargarmid, 2002). Notions such as eGovernment, eGovernance and any future technology of ICT (e.g. Web 2.0 applications), should fall under the Digital Governance umbrella (Schellong, 2009). This term has been preferred by other researchers as well, due to the excessive usage of adding letters like â€Å"e† (electronic), â€Å"m† (mobile), â€Å"u† (ubiquitous) or â€Å"2.0† to government-related terms. Schellong goes further to suggest a specific typology (2008) as illustrated below in 2: EGovernment contains the terms: * EAdministration Internal use of ICT * EServices. External use of ICT * EDemocracy. Use of ICT for direct public participation in government (decision making or voting) EGovernance is a completely different branch and deals with government, society and economy. E. Open Government In the last decade, there have been many efforts to promote eGovernment. A new initiative has emerged though, Open Government, or OpenGov as it is usually abbreviated. OpenGovernment efforts have begun not only in the US but also in other countries, like Greece. Although OpenGovernment and eGovernment have similar characteristics and share common goals, the greatest one being the promotion of transparency, they are not the same. Open Government can be argued to be an evolution of eGovernment (GUSTETIC, 2009), since the only reason that it exists as an initiative today is because of advances made by eGovernment along with various technological improvements and innovations. II. Benchmarking A. Definition Benchmarking is defined as the process of measuring the performance of an organization along with the practices it applies in key areas and subsequently comparing them to other organizations. It is widely accepted in the private sector and is being used as a practical tool in order to achieve positive results with unlimited potential. EGovernment benchmarking means undertaking a review of comparative performance of eGovernment between nations or agencies. These studies have two purposes: * Internal: Benefit the individual and/or organization undertaking the benchmarking study * External: Benefit achieved for users of the study. This project falls into the first category, as described in the Scope and Aims paragraph earlier in the document. B. Goals With new expectations about their performance, government entities are being encouraged to look at ways of implementing changes in their practices. Benchmarking provides them with one of their most useful options. In every industry, there are ways of doing things that are broadly recognized as standard practices for that industry. However, every industry has its leaders. These leaders are organizations that over perform when measured against those standards. They have achieved â€Å"best practices† as demonstrated by their results in quality, cost, customer satisfaction and responsiveness. Benchmarking aims to discover what the â€Å"best practices† are that lead to superior performance. In greater detail, the process of benchmarking e-Government : * Fosters accountability for eGovernment projects. * Helps meeting rising public expectations * Enables government officials to take more informed decisions and corrective actions * Validates the generated public value * Fosters projects interchange Moreover, benchmarking can be distinguished from other traditional forms of evaluation by its attempt to visualize â€Å"best practices† through normalizing comparison and by urging public entities to ask themselves what they can do to promote them. Benchmarking enables and motivates them to determine how well current practices compare to others practices, locate performance gaps, experience best practices in action, and prioritize areas for improvement or other opportunities. It is quite important to note that â€Å"Benchmarking is not the same as benchmarks. Benchmarks are performance measures and benchmarking is the action of conducting the evaluation.† (Yasin, 2002). C. Data Sources After establishing what benchmarking is, the most common data sources are evaluated.. 1. Calculated Indicators Quite a few benchmarking reports use composite indicators, for example, for the purposes of national rankings. Because it is not always clear how they are calculated or researched, composites have been criticized (UIS 2003) for their lack of transparency along for their subjectivity. Fortunately, a guide for good practice in use of composites has been developed (eGEP 2006a:45) and includes: * Developing a theoretical framework for the composite. * Identifying and developing relevant variables. * Standardizing variables to allow comparisons. * Weighting variables and groups of variables. * Conducting sensitivity tests on the robustness of aggregated variables. Other than the composite calculation of national rankings, there seems to be little use of calculated indicators in the benchmarking of e-government. The most commonly used indicators include: * Benefit/Cost Ratio. * Demand/Supply Match. * Comparative Service Development. * National Ranking Some examples along with the methods used for each indicator are illustrated in Table 1below (adapted from Heeks, 2006). Calculated Indicator Example Method Benefit/Cost Ratio Expected financial benefit (impact) / Financial cost (input) (NOIE 2003) Interview (internal self-assessment / internal administrative records) Demand/Supply Match Preference for online channel in particular services versus Online sophistication of that service (Graafland Essers Ettendgui 2003) Mass citizen survey Comparative Service Development Stage model level of citizen services versus business services (Capgemini 2005) Stage model level of different service cluster areas (Capgemini 2005) Third party Web assessment National Ranking Composite of features and stage model level for national websites (West 2005) Composite of ICT and human infrastructure with stage model level for national/other websites (UN 2005) Composite of stage model level, integration and personalization of national websites (Accenture 2005) Third party Web assessment Table 1 Calculated Indicators Used in eGovernment Benchmarking (Heeks, 2006). 2. Standard Public Sector Indicators Apart from calculated indicators, others (Flynn 2002) suggest using a standard indicator set for public sector performance. This set is displayed in Table 2 below (adapted from Flynn 2002). Indicator Explanation eGovernment Example Benchmark Economy The amount of inputs used Expenditure per capita on IT None Internal efficiency The ration of input intermediates Cost per website produced per year Minimization External efficiency The ratio of inputs: outputs (use) Cost per citizen user of government websites per year Minimization Internal effectiveness The fit between actual outputs (use) and organizational objectives or other set targets The extent to which underserved communities are users of e-government services Maximization External effectiveness The fit between actual impacts and organizational objectives or other set targets The extent to which citizens are gaining employment due to use of an eGovernment job search service Maximization Quality The quality of intermediates or, more typically outputs (use) The quality of eGovernent services as perceived by citizen users Maximization Equity The equitability of distribution of outputs and impacts The quality of time/money saved by eGovernment service use between rich and poor Maximization Table 2 Standard Indicators for eGovernment Performance (Flynn 2002) D. Methodologies Having described the methodologies used more commonly when benchmarking eGovernment services, the next step is to illustrate how the necessary data is gathered. There are a number of official methods (eGEP 2006b): * Focus groups * Internal administrative records * Internal self-assessment * Mass user surveys * Official statistics * Pop-up surveys * Third part web assessment * Web metrics and crawlers Each of these methods can be compared in four different and distinct factors (Heeks, 2006). Those are: * Cost: The time and financial cost of the method. * Value: The value of the method in producing data capable of assessing the downstream value of e-government. * Comparability: The ease with which data produced can be compared across nations or agencies. * Data Quality: The level of quality of the methods data. In particular, Heeks suggests using the CARTA (Complete, Accurate, Relevant, Timely, Appropriate) check list when assessing data quality (2006). There is also a set of methodologies that are not used as frequently as the ones mentioned earlier. These are: * Intermediary Surveys. * Intranet Assessment. * Public Domain Statistics. * Public Servant and Politician Surveys. 1. Automation With new eGovernment services being introduced by Governments every day, benchmarking is gradually becoming a more and more important mechanism for identifying best practices and keeping track of developments, but as the number of the offered services increase, data collection becomes more and more difficult. Apart from that, since eGovernment is being expanded to other eGovernment levels, as illustrated earlier in 1, it is only natural that the number of benchmarking studies is increasing fast. Thus, the traditional approach of fata collection has not only become a very challenging but also a very resource intensive task. In order to address this matter, there are projects (eGovMon) which attempt to automate the data collection (Research Council of Norway, 2009). In particular, the eGovMon project is co-funded by the Research Council of Norway and â€Å"is developing methodology and software for quality evaluation of web services, in particular eGovernment services, concerning four areas:†  · Accessibility  · Transparency  · Efficiency  · Impact Additionally eGovMon will provide a policy design tool